Department of Speech Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Member, Academy of Management, International Communication Association, and the Speech Communication Association
Metaphors are the cognitive lenses we use to make sense of all situations. Intimately interconnected with the way we think, metaphors are fundamental in shaping reality. Building on work about metaphors in organizational life, this paper examines the language of information systems users in 16 different organizations. The results confirm the existence of six main metaphors (journey, war, game, organism, society, and machine) and adds three metaphors that also emerged from the language of IS users (family, zoo, and jungle). Dramatistic analysis was used to reveal that seven of these principal metaphors are found in commonly used systems development methodologies. For example, the systems development life cycle draws upon the "game" metaphor, and structured methodologies and CASE tools are akin to the "machine" metaphor. Analysts who are aware of the existence of these metaphors (both in the user organization and within the methodologies themselves) will begin to see the systems development process in an entirely different light. Caution must be undertaken, however, when using this approach. First, analysts should lead the systems development process by selecting a methodology to match user metaphors, not the other way around. Second, analysts must see, rather than suppress, the paradoxical richness of metaphors. Third, analysts should not limit the number of metaphors because it limits the usefulness of this approach. Fourth, analysts should be adequately trained in a variety of systems development methodologies. Finally, analysts should use metaphorical analysis in conjunction with other approaches. Using the recommendations and findings for guidance, analysts can begin to develop the power of metaphorical analysis to better understand and communicate with users during the development process.
Information Analysts observe the elements of an organization in order to gain information unavailable through interviewing and the investigation of hard data. In the past the process of observation has been intuitive at best. This article describes and develops a systematic methodology for analyzing the internal organizational environment. The approach is based on a framework used in film criticism called mise-en-scène analysis. Seven major concrete and abstract elements which influence organizational decisions are identified. office lighting and color; office design, space, and location; clothing of decision makers; individual and group decision making; abilities of decision makers; attention to multiple objectives; and cognitive maps of decision makers. The systematic framework for observation developed in this article is an alternative to the common sense approach to observation. The major advantage of the mis-en-scène approach is that it allows the Information Analyst to classify, document, and interpret important factors which usually remain at the sub-conscious level.